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Schemers, Private Armed Forces, and Confederates: A Study in Political History
XING Cheng, SU Chang
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DOI:10.17265/2328-2177/2026.09.008
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China； Macao University of Science and Technology, Macao SAR, China
Schemers are not uncommon throughout the history of numerous countries. Stereotypically, the schemers would maintain private armed forces and recruit confederates to advance conspiracies and consolidate power. But, numerous historical events have proven that this stereotype holds a certain degree of validity. In times of chaos, warlord separatism made the phenomenon of maintaining private armies and recruiting confederates far more common than in peacetime. However, schemers will not just appear in times of chaos, which means they may also appear in peacetime. During peaceful periods, conspiracies to raise private armed forces and recruit confederates are more clandestine and less easily perceived. It is clear that across all nations globally, the presence of schemers represents a grave threat. At the same time, drawing on historical precedents, private armed forces and confederates are often the most terrifying weapons in the hands of schemers. For this reason, in history, their concurrent appearance frequently signified the onset of enormous political disaster. Nevertheless, such conspiracies are not without countermeasures.
private armed forces, schemers, confederates, conspiracies, political history
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